tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-41343945389332523292024-03-12T21:29:23.942-07:00Automation and Instrumentationirfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.comBlogger204125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-25917503093971037112014-01-22T09:16:00.002-08:002014-01-22T09:16:42.915-08:00SCADA System - Network Security<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Network security for supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, is
increasingly important and ever evolving due to the need for secure and
reliable control systems. There is continuous growth, and the
management of network-connected devices and the expansion of Server-Client
networks can be difficult and cumbersome. To properly secure networks, a multistage process is needed incorporating risk assessment,
planning, design, implementation, and maintenance for a comprehensive
defense-in-depth strategy. A critical aspect of defense-in-depth is the
overall network system architecture and the network segmentation plan. A
properly planned and executed network architecture and segmentation
strategy lays the foundation for security and simplifies expansion and
maintenance of the network.<br />
<br />
There are industry-accepted methods for industrial control system (ICS)
network architecture and segmentation strategies that can be applied to SCADA systems. Industry-standard techniques,
based on recently published standards and network design guides, are
used to create a layered network architecture approach to security,
including the use of logical subnets and virtual local-area networks
(VLANs) for segmentation. The advantage of this approach is simpler
configuration of network security appliances and simpler management and
expansion of the network, leading to increased network availability and a
reduction in threat risk. </div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-87521844228523470102014-01-21T10:48:00.001-08:002014-01-21T10:49:31.685-08:00Allen Bradley - Just Started<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Hi..!<br />
This is my post after four months.. and i hope to share more technical stuff in coming months.<br />
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Currently i am working on Allen Bradley PLC and do have experience in ABB, Siemens and Schnieder as well along with some another brands also. The interesting thing i found about Allen Bradley is it's Networking Technology.<br />
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well it can be networked on Ethernet , Devicenet and Controlnet having same protocol CIP which stands for Common Industrial Protocol.<br />
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The below figure can give a better visualization :<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6EhZPRDQTtrQ_D23OOdz_2Yp6ewoXXbyqgcu_oBWnQxI-hpO-NK2qOZIIefni50g_eWk_p4NPlwIQ2hpPo0-21dBROseCSUsWrm_dt-3c2_WTt1nV0EZhXooi5e68JUYFUfdXWSx3-xU/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6EhZPRDQTtrQ_D23OOdz_2Yp6ewoXXbyqgcu_oBWnQxI-hpO-NK2qOZIIefni50g_eWk_p4NPlwIQ2hpPo0-21dBROseCSUsWrm_dt-3c2_WTt1nV0EZhXooi5e68JUYFUfdXWSx3-xU/s1600/1.png" /></a></div>
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will discuss more about AB in my coming posts.</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-77951634491565398492013-09-15T08:08:00.002-07:002013-09-15T08:08:36.725-07:00Analog Pressure transmitter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
It is important to note all the adjustments within this device, and how this compares to the<br />relative simplicity of an all-analog pressure transmitter:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrCyzrWO-g_5dhtMGHJcRL4_wVWpIgYc_MH-wmUVrkhSIa2iDCuNVJd_pe0xNzCprT6r08Fsf8Vo8YuBFD-Ob5WmGPAFlv1QkVOGjrqmaUFBgc-6QGW_729GR0ZUK9sTjttSVBXN8jZ90/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="440" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrCyzrWO-g_5dhtMGHJcRL4_wVWpIgYc_MH-wmUVrkhSIa2iDCuNVJd_pe0xNzCprT6r08Fsf8Vo8YuBFD-Ob5WmGPAFlv1QkVOGjrqmaUFBgc-6QGW_729GR0ZUK9sTjttSVBXN8jZ90/s640/1.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-38621065868427701402013-09-11T09:58:00.003-07:002013-09-11T09:58:31.088-07:00Smart Pressure Transmitter - I<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The advent of “smart” field instruments containing microprocessors has been a great advance for<br />industrial instrumentation. These devices have built-in diagnostic ability, greater accuracy, and the ability to communicate digitally with host devices for reporting of various parameters.<br />A simplified block diagram of a “smart” pressure transmitter looks something like this:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmIsqCZDtGvJkrxMkr1a4K0PEmmgRYn_Oq2NIPDGSTOzZcMwdpxE1YJ_PFxDJ_Xzj1dIgMvQfovIe3Gx31x7ixNjhisLukbua0-1CvfbbJPXbkb_v6LRuK9m9WG5gBpOs7htt6gOatqKc/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="448" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmIsqCZDtGvJkrxMkr1a4K0PEmmgRYn_Oq2NIPDGSTOzZcMwdpxE1YJ_PFxDJ_Xzj1dIgMvQfovIe3Gx31x7ixNjhisLukbua0-1CvfbbJPXbkb_v6LRuK9m9WG5gBpOs7htt6gOatqKc/s640/1.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-83841334875958672882013-07-13T06:06:00.001-07:002013-07-13T06:06:19.330-07:00Low Pass Filter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The simplest low-pass filter circuit is nothing more than a resistor and capacitor:</div>
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Low-frequency voltage signals applied to this circuit emerge at the output terminal relatively<br />unattenuated, because the reactance of the capacitor is quite large at low frequencies. High-frequency<br />signals applied to the same circuit become attenuated by the capacitor, which tends to “short” those<br />signals to ground with its low reactance to high frequencies. The performance of such a filter circuit<br />is primarily characterized by its cutoff frequency, mathematically defined as</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisO5I4bsr3WtL2vNEpbvhArwIN1s_0iiLk9HU3C2nPmM5dl-TVYy9h1y3d6ywCX4f2bhUTVyF0HfI5Q0LZ71rM9kGdaAzVT_YsLxR57EQpH2Y7sTJYdpymHao01mRSfdykCKpuNX1yqbY/s1600/2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisO5I4bsr3WtL2vNEpbvhArwIN1s_0iiLk9HU3C2nPmM5dl-TVYy9h1y3d6ywCX4f2bhUTVyF0HfI5Q0LZ71rM9kGdaAzVT_YsLxR57EQpH2Y7sTJYdpymHao01mRSfdykCKpuNX1yqbY/s1600/2.png" /></a></div>
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The cutoff frequency is the point at which only 70.7% of the input signal appears at the output (a -3 dB attenuation in voltage).<br /></div>
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-41413033857862119882013-07-11T22:47:00.000-07:002013-07-11T23:01:03.449-07:00DM+UF Plant - In reference to One of my Commissioned Projects<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">PLANT SYNOPSIS</span></u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></span></div>
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</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The main purpose of DM+UF plant is to supply
de-mineralized water to various systems with the priority to provide for steam
water system for producing steam to run the turbine. The water from the plant will
also be used as jacket water of diesel generators, air compressors and
chillers.</span></span></div>
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</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The process employed for DM+UF plant is the simple
ion-exchange method with cat ion bed, anion bed and mixed bed.</span></span></div>
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</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The capacity of the Plant is 48m3 per stream for outlet and
inlet is 56m3 per stream.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Plant employs several chemical and physical processes
to de-mineralized water namely.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dual
Media Filter (DMF)</span></u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - This process is also called Pressurized
Sand Filter as larger suspended impurities and organic matter are removed in
this process.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><u>Activated Charcoal Filter (ACF)</u> – This
process strictly removes chlorine from inlet water as presence of chlorine may
chemically damage the cation resin present in the bed.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Strongly
Acidic Cation Bed (SAC)</span></u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> – The main purpose of strongly acidic
cation bed is removal of cation from inlet water.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">De</span></u><u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-Gasser Tank</span></u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – This particular tank is used for
removal of carbon dioxide as carbon dioxide presence may cause unnecessary load
to the anion bed.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Strongly
Basic Anion Bed (SBA) </span></u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">– The purpose of this particular process is as the name suggests is to
remove positively charged anions.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mixed
Bed (MB) </span></u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">– The SAC
and SBA removes the cation and anion from the water but some amount of cation
and anion resins are still distributed within the bed. The mixed bed is mainly
polishing unit to refine the final outlet through SBA.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ultra
Filtration (UF) </span></u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">– This process of Ultra Filtration is a
physical interaction only where no chemical reaction takes place to remove
colloidal silica or non-reactive silica. UF modules are woven fiber filter
which removes the non-reactive silica.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-qformat:yes;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin-top:0in;
mso-para-margin-right:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
mso-para-margin-left:0in;
line-height:115%;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:11.0pt;
font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;}
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<![endif]-->
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> NB</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:
There are two vessels for DMF, ACF, SBA and MB and three vessels for UF at the
Plant Side.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/>
<w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/>
<w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/>
<w:Word11KerningPairs/>
<w:CachedColBalance/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">SYSTEM CONFIGURATION</span></u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
DM+UF Plant Panel have redundant PLCs, meaning that if one PLC goes to stop mode
or shuts down due to any event or situation then the other PLC will take over
ensuring the field input and output are unaffected<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from the one PLC shutdown. Similarly, even
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">CYCLES IN THE PLANT</span></u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The DM+UF Plant can be divided into three sections each
independent of each other. The following flowchart illustrates the section and
their respective cycle.</span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-1npXlD6QO_nwOH-gTJnqswPtmu1w6kNsC3Ba3c-tQ_h3bMDnyRPsoWHDzo4sXHwTaGHei4dJt2vf_LNi2Z3PBI7vlt8_ymOm9BufDipcKM4FrKbKtgo12IURRzc8PEJpE-f-16jyjS4/s1600/2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="428" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-1npXlD6QO_nwOH-gTJnqswPtmu1w6kNsC3Ba3c-tQ_h3bMDnyRPsoWHDzo4sXHwTaGHei4dJt2vf_LNi2Z3PBI7vlt8_ymOm9BufDipcKM4FrKbKtgo12IURRzc8PEJpE-f-16jyjS4/s640/2.png" width="640" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SECTION
1: </span></u></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This particular
section comprises of DMF, ACF and SAC each having two vessels from which either
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cycles namely Service Cycle, Backwash Cycle and Trip Cycle. There are further
sub-cycles in Service and Backwash Cycle as defined by necessity of process
requirements, each cycle results in operation of valves and pumps at the field.
Similarly ACF and SAC have cycles of Service and Backwash with their further
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SECTION
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vessels can be selected for Service or Regeneration Cycle. SBA has three cycles
namely Service, Regeneration and Trip Cycle whereas; MB has only Service and
Regeneration Cycle with each of the cycles having further sub-cycles except the
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The DM+UF is semi automated plant, the following
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">NB</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:
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vessels and their respective Auto mode of DMF, ACF and SAC. If there is any
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SBA and MB also have two vessels each and each vessel has
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MB Service Cycle requires selection of any of the two vessels and their
respective Auto Mode. The other vessel for SBA and MB can be taken in Manual
Mode or Auto Mode for Regeneration Cycle. If there any kind of field Fault or
interlock issue at SBA or MB then the cycle will trip in Section B when it is
at Auto Mode. The Trip at SBA and MB will not affect other cycles at Section A
or Section C.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">UF have three vessels each having Auto and Manual mode.
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Chemical Cleaning or Auto Mode for Backwash. Fault or Interlock issue at UF
section will only trip UF cycle and will not affect any other Cycles at the
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Pumps have Auto and Manual Mode; the corresponding
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can also be operated without cycle operations when taken in Manual Mode. The
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the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Actual Cycle Operation.</span></span></div>
<br />
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-13563419784283797192013-06-27T22:04:00.001-07:002013-06-27T22:04:23.932-07:00Damping Adjustment -I<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a<br />feature known as damping. This feature is essentially a low-pass filter function placed in-line with<br />the signal, reducing the amount of process “noise” reported by the transmitter.<br />Imagine a pressure transmitter sensing water pressure at the outlet of a large pump. The flow of<br />water exiting a pump tends to be extremely turbulent, and any pressure-sensing device connected<br />to the immediate discharge port of a pump will interpret this turbulence as violent fluctuations in<br />pressure. This means the pressure signal output by the transmitter will fluctuate as well, causing any<br />indicator or control system connected to that transmitter to register a very “noisy” water pressure:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjy5ENjd14-R5Lo069YmKHlKT1H7cmpwu2laxgk71KGXUtUZ8zB8-X-xKtEKu4USKU8cY5GwB7uu8vm0Z2fmMCzoK5EEcROyaKIwPgqQZA-Gnhk8Lpl9tm_TfvQtNctmMctECrtOchJ-Oc/s752/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjy5ENjd14-R5Lo069YmKHlKT1H7cmpwu2laxgk71KGXUtUZ8zB8-X-xKtEKu4USKU8cY5GwB7uu8vm0Z2fmMCzoK5EEcROyaKIwPgqQZA-Gnhk8Lpl9tm_TfvQtNctmMctECrtOchJ-Oc/s400/1.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-49664905122239716902013-06-25T22:10:00.000-07:002013-06-25T22:10:09.218-07:00Zero and Span Adjustment - Continuation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Things become more complicated when the input and output axes are represented by units of<br />measurement other than “percent.” Take for instance a pressure transmitter, a device designed to<br />sense a fluid pressure and output an electronic signal corresponding to that pressure. Here is a graph<br />for a pressure transmitter with an input range of 0 to 100 pounds per square inch (PSI) and an<br />electronic output signal range of 4 to 20 milliamps (mA) electric current:</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsL6CUMYMHX_iZe5hcvWOOCc-U4ag_AmaZ9PVAUFX5t18G5Ac-trissJn6KlnCkefKJOOUMJjg7vkxZbfB5s5FeBWI_CbFF9z4-T3Bf46bigW3ySEn2caNTDrMx9v8CU1Gq1iitGTZjSM/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsL6CUMYMHX_iZe5hcvWOOCc-U4ag_AmaZ9PVAUFX5t18G5Ac-trissJn6KlnCkefKJOOUMJjg7vkxZbfB5s5FeBWI_CbFF9z4-T3Bf46bigW3ySEn2caNTDrMx9v8CU1Gq1iitGTZjSM/s400/1.png" width="400" /> </a></div>
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Although the graph is still linear, zero pressure does not equate to zero current. This is called<br />a live zero, because the 0% point of measurement (0 PSI fluid pressure) corresponds to a non-zero<br />(“live”) electronic signal. 0 PSI pressure may be the LRV (Lower Range Value) of the transmitter’s<br />input, but the LRV of the transmitter’s output is 4 mA, not 0 mA.<br />Any linear, mathematical function may be expressed in “slope-intercept” equation form:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
y = mx + b</div>
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Where,<br />y = Vertical position on graph<br />x = Horizontal position on graph<br />m = Slope of line<br />b = Point of intersection between the line and the vertical (y) axis </div>
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This instrument’s calibration is no different. If we let x represent the input pressure in units<br />of PSI and y represent the output current in units of milliamps, we may write an equation for this<br />instrument as follows:</div>
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y = 0.16x + 4</div>
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On the actual instrument (the pressure transmitter), there are two adjustments which let us<br />match the instrument’s behavior to the ideal equation. One adjustment is called the zero while the </div>
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other is called the span. These two adjustments correspond exactly to the b and m terms of<br />the linear function, respectively: the “zero” adjustment shifts the instrument’s function vertically<br />on the graph, while the “span” adjustment changes the slope of the function on the graph. By<br />adjusting both zero and span, we may set the instrument for any range of measurement within the<br />manufacturer’s limits.<br />It should be noted that for most analog instruments, these two adjustments are interactive. That<br />is, adjusting one has an effect on the other. Specifically, changes made to the span adjustment almost<br />always alter the instrument’s zero point. An instrument with interactive zero and span adjustments<br />requires much more effort to accurately calibrate, as one must switch back and forth between the<br />lower- and upper-range points repeatedly to adjust for accuracy.</div>
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-81326772336268628532013-06-24T21:02:00.002-07:002013-06-24T21:02:36.529-07:00Zero and span adjustments<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an instrument correspond to one<br />another predictably throughout the entire range of operation. We may express this expectation in<br />the form of a graph, showing how the input and output of an instrument should relate:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgAG1VaYXf8V1lkjYxSYMB_GsUC-poiabYVNUHa5L4M-Qh2ocknfsFoOeJ_DXTMXrTmTcz6NiC7lSMcjWV_eDQ6OBQUDnXQdEu1FyMxN3iiFmO95smqSCnmzmYoy2fXkpSuyI324bwzYQ/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgAG1VaYXf8V1lkjYxSYMB_GsUC-poiabYVNUHa5L4M-Qh2ocknfsFoOeJ_DXTMXrTmTcz6NiC7lSMcjWV_eDQ6OBQUDnXQdEu1FyMxN3iiFmO95smqSCnmzmYoy2fXkpSuyI324bwzYQ/s400/1.png" width="400" /></a></div>
This graph shows how any given percentage of input should correspond to the same percentage<br />of output, all the way from 0% to 100%.</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-73151579189088808502013-06-23T21:05:00.001-07:002013-06-23T21:06:09.609-07:00Calibration and Re-Arranging<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Every instrument has at least one input and one output. For a pressure sensor, the input would be<br />
some fluid pressure and the output would (most likely) be an electronic signal. For a loop indicator,<br />
the input would be a 4-20 mA current signal and the output would be a human-readable display.<br />
For a variable-speed motor drive, the input would be an electronic signal and the output would be<br />
electric power to the motor.<br />
To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the output<br />
accurately corresponds to its input throughout a specified range. In order to do this, one must<br />
expose the instrument to an actual input stimulus of precisely known quantity. For a pressure<br />
gauge, indicator, or transmitter, this would mean subjecting the pressure instrument to known fluid<br />
pressures and comparing the instrument response against those known pressure quantities. One<br />
cannot perform a true calibration without comparing an instrument’s response to known, physical<br />
stimuli.<br />
To range an instrument means to set the lower and upper range values so it responds with the<br />
desired sensitivity to changes in input. For example, a pressure transmitter set to a range of 0 to<br />
200 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA output ; 200 PSI = 20 mA output) could be re-ranged to respond on a scale<br />
of 0 to 150 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA ; 150 PSI = 20 mA).<br />
In analog instruments, re-ranging could (usually) only be accomplished by re-calibration, since<br />
the same adjustments were used to achieve both purposes. In digital instruments, calibration and<br />
ranging are typically separate adjustments (i.e. it is possible to re-range a digital transmitter without<br />
having to perform a complete recalibration), so it is important to understand the difference.<br />
<br /></div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-67824123568675413512013-06-17T21:09:00.002-07:002013-06-17T21:09:51.087-07:00Field Bus Standard<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
The general definition of a fieldbus is any digital network designed to interconnect field-located<br />
instruments. By this definition, HART multidrop is a type of industrial fieldbus. However, HART is<br />
too slow to function as a practical fieldbus for many applications, so other fieldbus standards exist.<br />
Here is a list showing many popular fieldbus standards:<br />
• FOUNDATION Fieldbus<br />
• Profibus PA<br />
• Profibus DP<br />
• Profibus FMS<br />
• Modbus<br />
• AS-I<br />
• CANbus<br />
• ControlNET<br />
• DeviceNet<br />
• BACnet<br />
The utility of digital “fieldbus” instruments becomes apparent through the host system these<br />
instruments are connected to (typically a distributed control system, or DCS). Fieldbus-aware host<br />
systems usually have means to provide instrument information (including diagnostics) in very easyto-<br />
navigate formats.<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-11757059775935381082013-06-16T21:08:00.005-07:002013-06-16T21:08:55.426-07:00HART multi-variable transmitters<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
Some “smart” instruments have the ability to report multiple process variables. A good example<br />
of this is Coriolis-effect flowmeters, which by their very nature simultaneously measure the density,<br />
flow rate, and temperature of the fluid passing through them. A single pair of wires can only convey<br />
one 4-20 mA analog signal, but that same pair of wires may convey multiple digital signals encoded<br />
in the HART protocol. Digital signal transmission is required to realize the full capability of such<br />
“multi-variable” transmitters.<br />
If the host system receiving the transmitter’s signal(s) is HART-ready, it may digitally poll the<br />
transmitters for all variables. If, however, the host system does not “talk” using the HART protocol,<br />
some other means must be found to “decode” the wealth of digital data coming from the multivariable<br />
transmitter.<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-33798913923130155342013-06-15T10:47:00.002-07:002013-06-15T10:47:35.195-07:00HART- Multidrop Mode<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
The HART standard also supports a mode of operation that is totally digital, and capable of<br />
supporting multiple HART instruments on the same pair of wires. This is known as multidrop<br />
mode.<br />
Every HART instrument has an address number, which is typically set to a value of zero (0). A<br />
network address is a number used to distinguish one device from another on a broadcast network,<br />
so messages broadcast across the network may be directed to specific destinations. When a HART<br />
instrument operates in digital/analog hybrid mode, where it must have its own dedicated wire pair<br />
for communicating the 4-20 mA DC signal between it and an indicator or controller, there is no<br />
need for a digital address. An address becomes necessary only when multiple devices are connected<br />
to the same network wiring, and there arises a need to digitally distinguish one device from another<br />
on the same network.<br />
This is a functionality the designers of HART intended from the beginning, although it is<br />
frequently unused in industry. Multiple HART instruments may be connected directly in parallel<br />
with one another along the same wire pair, and information exchanged between those instruments<br />
and a host system, if the HART address numbers are set to non-zero values.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFyqUCpo-EeRORcX7ZDpLNzmeSnm6Oc1H943VtO9aBW8F3MvxHTIeoEFl_az6vkkyeb7fcDV80cCGAmTmgx7WXTxMa-ddCveA9_kuQxiX0Pah2jlzUZhSbfYtnM5dZyyguZbuzuM3cjNU/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFyqUCpo-EeRORcX7ZDpLNzmeSnm6Oc1H943VtO9aBW8F3MvxHTIeoEFl_az6vkkyeb7fcDV80cCGAmTmgx7WXTxMa-ddCveA9_kuQxiX0Pah2jlzUZhSbfYtnM5dZyyguZbuzuM3cjNU/s400/1.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
Setting an instrument’s HART address to a non-zero value is all that is necessary to engage<br />
multidrop mode. The address numbers themselves are irrelevant, as long as they fall within the<br />
range of 1 to 15 and are unique to that network.<br />
The major disadvantage of using HART instruments in multidrop mode is its slow speed.<br />
Due to HART’s slow data rate (1200 bits per second), it may take several seconds to access a<br />
particular instrument’s data on a multidropped network. For some applications such as temperature<br />
measurement, this slow response time may be acceptable. For inherently faster processes such as<br />
liquid flow control, it would not be nearly fast enough to provide up-to-date information for the<br />
control system to act upon.<br />
<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-89197663208337556772013-06-14T08:55:00.003-07:002013-06-14T08:55:32.531-07:00Hart Communicator - Superposition theorem<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
To apply the Superposition Theorem, we replace all the other sources with their own equivalent<br />
internal resistances (voltage sources become “shorts,” and current sources become “opens”):<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAX2o-GV0_3cx1oGTYP4ANS9r-7cRae0lfN5j3tRBmCPgYqHtspQLAtn6T2cuCmqFlPDoNFMZapx-fkK2pyCA81lQv4buXi_4VUmQqHXL9UQHN3p_qvnDbrf__1nJcpGvzERiMVrTztM8/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAX2o-GV0_3cx1oGTYP4ANS9r-7cRae0lfN5j3tRBmCPgYqHtspQLAtn6T2cuCmqFlPDoNFMZapx-fkK2pyCA81lQv4buXi_4VUmQqHXL9UQHN3p_qvnDbrf__1nJcpGvzERiMVrTztM8/s400/1.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
The HART communicator is “listening” for those audio tone signals sent by the transmitter’s<br />
AC source, but it “hears” nothing because the DC power supply’s equivalent short-circuit prevents<br />
any significant AC voltage from developing across the two wires. This is what happens when there<br />
is no loop resistance: no HART device is able to receive data sent by any other HART device.<br />
The solution to this dilemma is to install a resistance of at least 250 ohms but not greater than<br />
1100 ohms between the DC power source and all other HART devices, like this:<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6J3cGJbTrETa6Uo7bZgXcTm3qF0INRDuW1VTpe9PHz7uR3hU2D-nRS0kK90XDz3WjkbU3CHedyrg2IdjNJQROkED24k4T8R5EaMbCdfJht4PbufqI6vB0mPCWfUj575eAF38BRnVeK5s/s1600/2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6J3cGJbTrETa6Uo7bZgXcTm3qF0INRDuW1VTpe9PHz7uR3hU2D-nRS0kK90XDz3WjkbU3CHedyrg2IdjNJQROkED24k4T8R5EaMbCdfJht4PbufqI6vB0mPCWfUj575eAF38BRnVeK5s/s400/2.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
Loop resistance must be at least 250 ohms to allow the 1 mA P-P AC signal to develop enough<br />
voltage to be reliably detected by the HART modem in the listening device. The upper limit (1100<br />
ohms) is not a function of HART communication so much as it is a function of the DC voltage<br />
drop, and the need to maintain a minimum DC terminal voltage at the transmitter for its own<br />
operation. If there is too much loop resistance, the transmitter will become “starved” of voltage and<br />
act erratically. In fact, even 1100 ohms of loop resistance may be too much if the DC power supply<br />
voltage is insufficient.<br />
<br />
<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-11576318461799729122013-06-12T20:59:00.002-07:002013-06-12T20:59:40.333-07:00Understanding HART Current Lops<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
An important consideration in HART current loops is that the total loop resistance (precision<br />
resistor values plus wire resistance) must fall within a certain range: 250 ohms to 1100 ohms. Most<br />
4-20 mA loops (containing a single 250 ohm resistor for converting 4-20 mA to 1-5 V) measure in at<br />
just over 250 ohms total resistance, and work quite well with HART. Even loops containing two 250<br />
ohm precision resistors meet this requirement. Where technicians often encounter problems is when<br />
they set up a loop-powered HART transmitter on the test bench with a lab-style power supply and<br />
no 250 ohm resistor anywhere in the circuit:<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ6ZwlU6ax6MLYipfmTjJKLa3Jno2CRcgBzVtmXxLi-L28sJHE-P0JQnqa_ou_bI7X-OOV9qYTakzz0wbYpaVlA9O9HMDhrDSJovGFjmf4WY_GTh7ugNJP5KfzHz9KHBUSvc_BUoh2djI/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ6ZwlU6ax6MLYipfmTjJKLa3Jno2CRcgBzVtmXxLi-L28sJHE-P0JQnqa_ou_bI7X-OOV9qYTakzz0wbYpaVlA9O9HMDhrDSJovGFjmf4WY_GTh7ugNJP5KfzHz9KHBUSvc_BUoh2djI/s1600/1.png" /></a></div>
<br />
The HART transmitter may be modeled as two parallel current sources: one DC and one AC. The<br />
DC current source provides the 4-20 mA regulation necessary to represent the process measurement<br />
as an analog current value. The AC current source turns on and off as necessary to “inject” the 1<br />
mA P-P audio-frequency HART signal along the two wires. Inside the transmitter is also a HART<br />
modem for interpreting AC voltage tones as HART data packets. Thus, data transmission takes<br />
place through the AC current source, and data reception takes place through a voltage-sensitive<br />
modem, all inside the transmitter, all “talking” along the same two wires that carry the DC 4-20<br />
mA signal.<br />
<br />
For ease of connection in the field, HART devices are designed to be connected in parallel with<br />
each other. This eliminates the need to break the loop and interrupt the DC current signal every time<br />
we wish to connect a HART communicator device to communicate with the transmitter. A typical<br />
HART communicator may be modeled as an AC voltage source (along with another HART voltagesensitive<br />
modem for receiving HART data). Connected in parallel with the HART transmitter, the<br />
complete circuit looks something like this:<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<br />
<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-49405573888415641312013-06-11T21:05:00.001-07:002013-06-11T21:05:24.337-07:00The HART digital/analog hybrid standard<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
A technological advance introduced in the late 1980’s was HART, an acronym standing for Highway<br />
Addressable Remote Transmitter. The purpose of the HART standard was to create a way for<br />
instruments to digitally communicate with one another over the same two wires used to convey a<br />
4-20 mA analog instrument signal. In other words, HART is a hybrid communication standard, with<br />
one variable (channel) of information communicated by the analog value of a 4-20 mA DC signal, and<br />
another channel for digital communication whereby many other variables could be communicated<br />
using pulses of current to represent binary bit values of 0 and 1.<br />
The HART standard was developed with existing installations in mind. The medium for digital<br />
communication had to be robust enough to travel over twisted-pair cables of very long length and<br />
unknown characteristic impedance. This meant that the data communication rate for the digital<br />
data had to be very slow, even by 1980’s standards.<br />
Digital data is encoded in HART using the Bell 202 modem standard: two audio-frequency<br />
“tones” (1200 Hz and 2200 Hz) are used to represent the binary states of “1” and “0,” respectively,<br />
transmitted at a rate of 1200 bits per second. This is known as frequency-shift keying, or FSK. The<br />
physical representation of these two frequencies is an AC current of 1 mA peak-to-peak superimposed<br />
on the 4-20 mA DC signal. Thus, when a HART-compatible device “talks” digitally on a two-wire<br />
loop circuit, it produces tone bursts of AC current at 1.2 kHz and 2.2kHz. The receiving HART<br />
device “listens” for these AC current frequencies and interprets them as binary bits.<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-90180342592771525222013-06-10T21:17:00.002-07:002013-06-10T21:17:22.625-07:00Advantages and disadvantages of Pneumatic Instruments<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both<br />
pneumatic and electronic instruments. Sensitivity to vibration, changes in temperature, mounting<br />
position, and the like affect calibration accuracy to a far greater degree for pneumatic instruments<br />
than electronic instruments. Compressed air is an expensive utility – much more expensive per<br />
equivalent watt-hour than electricity – making the operational cost of pneumatic instruments far<br />
greater than electronic. The installed cost of pneumatic instruments can be quite high as well, given<br />
the need for special (stainless steel, copper, or tough plastic) tubes to carry supply air and pneumatic<br />
signals to distant locations. The volume of air tubes used to convey pneumatic signals over distances<br />
acts as a low-pass filter, naturally damping the instrument’s response and thereby reducing its ability<br />
to respond quickly to changing process conditions. Pneumatic instruments cannot be made “smart”<br />
like electronic instruments, either. However, pneumatic instruments actually enjoy some definite technical advantages which secure their continued use in certain applications even in the 21st century. One decided advantage is the intrinsic safety of pneumatic field instruments. Instruments that do not run on electricity cannot generate electrical sparks. This is of utmost importance in “classified” industrial environments where<br />
<br />
explosive gases, liquids, dusts, and powders exist. Pneumatic instruments are also self-purging.<br />
Their continual bleeding of compressed air from vent ports in pneumatic relays and nozzles acts as a<br />
natural clean-air purge for the inside of the instrument, preventing the intrusion of dust and vapor<br />
from the outside with a slight positive pressure inside the instrument case. It is not uncommon to<br />
find a field-mounted pneumatic instrument encrusted with corrosion and filth on the outside, but<br />
factory-clean on the inside due to this continual purge of clean air. Pneumatic instruments mounted<br />
inside larger enclosures with other devices tend to protect them all by providing a positive-pressure<br />
air purge for the entire enclosure.<br />
Some pneumatic instruments can also function in high-temperature and high-radiation<br />
environments that would damage electronic instruments. Although it is often possible to “harden”<br />
electronic field instruments to such harsh conditions, pneumatic instruments are practically immune<br />
by nature.<br />
An interesting feature of pneumatic instruments is that they may operate on compressed gases<br />
other than air. This is an advantage in remote natural gas installations, where the natural gas<br />
itself is sometimes used as a source of pneumatic “power” for instruments. So long as there is<br />
compressed natural gas in the pipeline to measure and to control, the instruments will operate. No<br />
air compressor or electrical power source is needed in these installations.<br />
<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-79087619014288362832013-06-10T04:06:00.000-07:002013-06-10T04:08:03.060-07:00Pneumatic Instruments - Proper Care and Feeding<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
Perhaps the most important rule to obey when using pneumatic instruments is to maintain clean<br />
and dry instrument air. Compressed air containing dirt, rust, oil, water, or other contaminants will<br />
cause operational problems for pneumatic instruments. First and foremost is the concern that tiny<br />
orifices and nozzles inside the pneumatic mechanisms will clog over time. Clogged orifices tend to<br />
result in decreased output pressure, while clogged nozzles tend to result in increased output pressure.<br />
In either case, the “first aid” repair is to pass a welding torch tip cleaner through the plugged hole<br />
to break loose the residue or debris plugging it.<br />
Moisture in compressed air tends to corrode metal parts inside pneumatic mechanisms. This<br />
corrosion may break loose to form debris that plugs orifices and nozzles, or it may simply eat<br />
through thin diaphragms and bellows until air leaks develop. Grossly excessive moisture will cause<br />
erratic operation as “plugs” of liquid travel through thin tubes, orifices, and nozzles designed only<br />
for air passage.<br />
A common mistake made when installing pneumatic instruments is to connect them to a generalservice<br />
(“utility”) compressed air supply instead of a dedicated instrument-service compressed air<br />
system. Utility air systems are designed to supply air tools and large air-powered actuators with<br />
pneumatic power. These high-flow compressed air systems are often seeded with antifreeze and/or<br />
lubricating chemicals to prolong the operating life of the piping and air-consuming devices, but<br />
the same liquids will wreak havoc on sensitive instrumentation. Instrument air supplies should be<br />
sourced by their own dedicated air compressor(s), complete with automatic air-dryer equipment,<br />
and distributed through stainless steel, copper, or plastic tubing (never black iron or galvanized iron<br />
pipe!).<br />
Once i read an article that Someone on the operations staff decided they would use 100 PSI instrument air to purge a process pipe filled with acid. Unfortunately, the acid pressure in the process pipe exceeded 100 PSI, and as a result acid flushed backward into the instrument air system. Within days most of the pneumatic instruments in that section of the refinery failed due to accelerated corrosion of brass and aluminum components inside the instruments. The total failure of multiple instruments over such a short time could have<br />
easily resulted in a disaster, but fortunately the crisis was minimal. Once the first couple of faulty<br />
instruments were disassembled after removal, the cause of failure became evident and the technicians<br />
took action to purge the lines of acid before too many more instruments suffered the same fate.<br />
Pneumatic instruments must be fed compressed air of the proper pressure as well. Just like<br />
electronic circuits which require power supply voltages within specified limits, pneumatic instruments<br />
do not operate well if their air supply pressure is too low or too high. If the supply pressure is too<br />
low, the instrument cannot generate a full-scale output signal. If the supply pressure is too high,<br />
internal failure may result from ruptured diaphragms, seals, or bellows. Many pneumatic instruments<br />
are equipped with their own local pressure regulators directly attached to ensure each instrument<br />
receives the correct pressure despite pressure fluctuations in the supply line.</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-16295230060676952402013-06-02T21:38:00.001-07:002013-06-02T21:38:43.162-07:00Analysis of a practical pneumatic instrument<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
A photograph of one with the cover removed is shown here:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyKlbib2Gu1J6OiDMdwN9LFN4HiigijaaJCspFXwo_RoxvDFjKXeBIFyUdHp9Ah1FhKZ9tKs9zRTnJ3qQZ_Msiajyg41wyb6hu_ux5yirx5erOFATxPpBA9UEflYOj1GvDlWsWs0KSLck/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="420" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyKlbib2Gu1J6OiDMdwN9LFN4HiigijaaJCspFXwo_RoxvDFjKXeBIFyUdHp9Ah1FhKZ9tKs9zRTnJ3qQZ_Msiajyg41wyb6hu_ux5yirx5erOFATxPpBA9UEflYOj1GvDlWsWs0KSLck/s640/1.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
A functional illustration of this instrument identifies its major components:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiohyphenhyphenDrp83exFmq5XosU_LPoxZTFcwoBkW7YGEeWLMQBFrr_HlScFGMCMcj7C1AqdFDODBdfv0GhcqHAP4VQj2i-5FSJKmpY1v1LVRSIXHxJFjlwl2g47He7BW3i-QRg-TiUQ8gqzRrHjY/s1600/2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiohyphenhyphenDrp83exFmq5XosU_LPoxZTFcwoBkW7YGEeWLMQBFrr_HlScFGMCMcj7C1AqdFDODBdfv0GhcqHAP4VQj2i-5FSJKmpY1v1LVRSIXHxJFjlwl2g47He7BW3i-QRg-TiUQ8gqzRrHjY/s640/2.png" width="540" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-52409606352228611102013-06-01T05:17:00.002-07:002013-06-01T05:18:39.019-07:00Analogy to OPAMP circuits<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational<br />
amplifier circuits, in that negative feedback is used to generate an output signal in precise proportion<br />
to an input signal. This section compares simple operational amplifier (“opamp”) circuits with<br />
analogous pneumatic mechanisms for the purpose of illustrating how negative feedback works, and<br />
learning how to generally analyze pneumatic mechanisms.<br />
In the following illustration, we see an opamp with no feedback (open loop), next to a baffle/nozzle<br />
mechanism with no feedback (open loop):<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIAQmLrHLsrW4m0FhIRiv0jyNDi8snbedZsssE5uNw9V9Pu1zK_eO9-TCEmVlt5Th5AIgdBdBIhlSYDvUebFQ7DlKxBeTVhmXiddHB81ahC9SmgqfNM4keV0lZXyckOoVPOBLoXBnAUAE/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="187" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIAQmLrHLsrW4m0FhIRiv0jyNDi8snbedZsssE5uNw9V9Pu1zK_eO9-TCEmVlt5Th5AIgdBdBIhlSYDvUebFQ7DlKxBeTVhmXiddHB81ahC9SmgqfNM4keV0lZXyckOoVPOBLoXBnAUAE/s640/1.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
For each system there is an input and an output. For the opamp, input and output are both<br />
electrical (voltage) signals: Vin is the differential voltage between the two input terminals, and Vout<br />
is the single-ended voltage measured between the output terminal and ground. For the baffle/nozzle,<br />
the input is the physical gap between the baffle and nozzle (xin) while the output is the backpressure<br />
indicated by the pressure gauge (Pout).<br />
Both systems have very large gains. Operational amplifier open-loop gains typically exceed<br />
200,000 (over 100 dB), and we have already seen how just a few thousandths of an inch of baffle<br />
motion is enough to drive the backpressure of a nozzle nearly to its limits (supply pressure and<br />
atmospheric pressure, respectively).<br />
Gain is always defined as the ratio between output and input for a system. Mathematically, it is<br />
the quotient of output change and input change, with “change” represented by the triangular Greek<br />
capital-letter delta:<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiTr5zAOj-YXrR2AdNn_jaZ7swy-zzTa85BiztUaN8Q_p9Zm-BZngUuh1SQBZzQmnkclibmjO2LNhlvLqGSKwnYiy0-IvE1LWwTU4Y8z9buaNFr1JH417OJ7FgCVis1buMUDNdOAh_kzQ/s1600/2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiTr5zAOj-YXrR2AdNn_jaZ7swy-zzTa85BiztUaN8Q_p9Zm-BZngUuh1SQBZzQmnkclibmjO2LNhlvLqGSKwnYiy0-IvE1LWwTU4Y8z9buaNFr1JH417OJ7FgCVis1buMUDNdOAh_kzQ/s1600/2.png" /></a></div>
<br />
Normally, gain is a unitless ratio. We can easily see this for the opamp circuit, since both output<br />
and input are voltages, any unit of measurement for voltage would cancel in the quotient, leaving a<br />
unitless quantity. This is not so evident in the baffle/nozzle system, with the output represented in<br />
units of pressure and the input represented in units of distance.<br />
<br />
If we were to add a bellows to the baffle/nozzle mechanism, we would have a system that inputs<br />
and outputs fluid pressure, allowing us to more formally define the gain of the system as a unitless<br />
ratio of <br />
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<br />
The general effect of negative feedback is to decrease the gain of a system, and also make that<br />
system’s response more linear over the operating range. This is not an easy concept to grasp,<br />
however, and so we will explore the effect of adding negative feedback in detail for both systems.<br />
The simplest expression of negative feedback is a condition of 100% negative feedback, where the<br />
whole strength of the output signal gets “fed back” to the amplification system in degenerative<br />
fashion. For an opamp, this simply means connecting the output terminal directly to the inverting<br />
input terminal:<br />
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This “negative” or “degenerative” feedback is because its effect is counteractive in nature.<br />
If the output voltage rises too high, the effect of feeding this signal to the inverting input will be to<br />
bring the output voltage back down again. Likewise, if the output voltage is too low, the inverting<br />
input will sense this and act to bring it back up again. Self-correction typifies the very nature of<br />
negative feedback.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-48868905227546415762013-04-30T08:20:00.003-07:002013-04-30T08:20:47.149-07:00Pneumatic Mechanism - Continuation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
A similar design of pilot valve reverses the directions of the two plugs and seats. The only<br />
operational difference between this pilot valve and the previous design is an inverse relationship<br />
between control rod motion and pressure:<br />
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-7320767688568013242013-04-29T09:44:00.001-07:002013-04-29T09:44:19.134-07:00Pneumatic Mechanism - Continuation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
The sensitivity of this pneumatic mechanism may be improved by extending the control rod and<br />
adding a second plug/seat assembly. The resulting mechanism, with dual plugs and seats, is known<br />
as a pneumatic pilot valve. An illustration of a pilot valve is shown here, along with its electrical<br />
analogue :<br />
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<br />
As the control rod is moved up and down, both variable restrictions change in complementary<br />
fashion. As one restriction opens up, the other pinches shut. The combination of two restrictions<br />
changing in opposite direction results in a much more aggressive change in output pressure as<br />
registered by the gauge.<br />
<br />
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-4613288476591740192013-04-27T07:46:00.000-07:002013-04-27T07:46:04.212-07:00Pneumatic and Equivalent Electrical circuit<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
The following pneumatic mechanism and its electrical analogue :<br />
<br />
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<br />
As the control rod is moved up and down by an outside force, the distance between the plug<br />
and the seat changes. This changes the amount of resistance experienced by the escaping air,<br />
thus causing the pressure gauge to register varying amounts of pressure. There is little functional<br />
difference between this mechanism and a baffle/nozzle mechanism. Both work on the principle of one<br />
variable restriction and one fixed restriction (the orifice) “dividing” the pressure of the compressed<br />
air source to some lesser value.<br />
<br />
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-16987167587204660112013-04-26T08:55:00.002-07:002013-04-26T08:55:32.821-07:00Pilot valves and pneumatic amplifying relays<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
A plain baffle/nozzle mechanism may be made extremely sensitive by reducing the size of the<br />
orifice. However, a problem caused by decreasing orifice size is a corresponding decrease in the<br />
nozzle’s ability to provide increasing backpressure to fill a bellows of significant volume. In other<br />
words, a smaller orifice will result in greater sensitivity to baffle motion, but it also limits the air flow<br />
rate available to fill the bellows, which makes the system slower to respond. Another disadvantage of<br />
smaller orifices is that they become more susceptible to plugging due to impurities in the compressed<br />
air.<br />
An alternative technique to making the baffle/nozzle mechanism more sensitive is to amplify its<br />
output pressure using some other pneumatic device. This is analogous to increasing the sensitivity<br />
of a voltage-generating electrical detector by passing its output voltage signal through an electronic<br />
amplifier. Small changes in detector output become bigger changes in amplifier output which then<br />
causes our self-balancing system to be even more precise.<br />
</div>
irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4134394538933252329.post-39196186919127761832013-04-24T08:52:00.001-07:002013-04-24T08:52:06.224-07:00Baffle / Nozzle Mechanism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
The principle behind the operation of a baffle/nozzle mechanism is often used directly in qualitycontrol<br />
work, checking for proper dimensioning of machined metal parts. Take for instance this<br />
shaft diameter checker, using air to determine whether or not a machined shaft inserted by a human<br />
operator is of the proper diameter after being manufactured on an assembly line:<br />
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<br />
If the shaft diameter is too small, there will be excessive clearance between the shaft and the<br />
inside diameter of the test jig, causing less air pressure to register on the gauge. Conversely, if<br />
the shaft diameter is too large, the clearance will be less and the gauge will register a greater air<br />
pressure because the flow of air will be obstructed by the reduced clearance. The exact pressure is<br />
of no particular consequence to the quality-control operator reading the gauge. What does matter<br />
is that the pressure falls within an acceptable range, reflecting proper manufacturing tolerances for<br />
the shaft. In fact, just like the 3-15 PSI “receiver gauges” used as pneumatic instrument indicators,<br />
the face of this pressure gauge might very well lack pressure units (such as kPa or PSI), but rather<br />
be labeled with a colored band showing acceptable limits of mechanical fit:<br />
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<br />
This is another example of the analogue nature of pneumatic pressure signals: the pressure<br />
registered by this gauge represents a completely different variable, in this case the mechanical fit of<br />
the shaft to the test jig. Although it is possible to construct a pneumatic instrument consisting only of a baffle/nozzle mechanism, this is rarely done.<br />
<br />
<br />
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irfa khanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03740828010636988218noreply@blogger.com0